NICHOLAS OWEN - PRIEST-HOLE MAKER; FEAST DAY 22nd MARCH
NICHOLAS OWEN
PRIEST-HOLE MAKER
FEAST DAY 22nd MARCH
Melchior Kussel (17th century) "Torture of Nicholas Owen SJ" engraving.
Elizabeth I was brought to power under the tutelage of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, and her power base was sustained by a vast network of supporters whose livelihoods and social ascendancy were dependent upon her monarchy and the continuation of the Tudor line. Crucial to the claim to the throne by Elizabeth was the protestant religion as the State church of the realm: under the Catholic faith, Elizabeth was illegitimate, disentitling her to any claim to the throne, and furthermore, disentitling all those further down the line whose claim arose through her. Moreover, a new ascendant aristocracy, those who had benefitted under the patronage of Henry VIII, and who had been granted the lands formerly owned by the Abbeys and Priories that had been plundered and sold off, had a vested interest in continuing the crushing of the Catholic faith in England completely, for its return as a base of secular or spiritual authority entailed the risk of the collapse of the new social order together with the enforced return of the Catholic churches and the properties, the manors, abbeys and priories, that had been appropriated from the Catholic religious institutions.
Under Elizabeth I, the statutes enacted by Henry VIII to impose the new religion on the populace were re-promulgated. A reconstruction of the society was undertaken: It was obligatory for everyone to attend Anglican service and, significantly, to partake of Anglican communion, (the act particularly being a renunciation of Catholicism and a compromise of the participant spiritually), under threat of fines, loss of employment and, in the case of recalcitrant refusal, forfeiture of property and execution. Priests had been executed as publicly shocking examples of the ruthlessness of the powerful and the powerlessness of the ordinary person. Those priests who wished to remain with their flocks were forced to comply with the new religion or practice the 'old religion' surreptitiously. There were quite a few ‘Marian priests’ who refused to accept the new religion and who remained underground, secretly ministering to the, also underground, Catholic faithful.
“Many people had a belief in the old religion, but were worldly enough not to show it. One of the most notorious turncoats of the time was Dr Andrew Perne, the master of Peterhouse College Cambridge. When he erected a weathervane at his college with his initials at the top, it was jested that these stood for ‘A Protestant’, ‘A Papist,’ or ‘A Puritan,’ depending upon which way the wind blew. However, he is also said to have advised a lady friend with these words:
‘You can live in the religion which the Queen and the whole country profess – you will have a good life, you will have none of the vexations which Catholics have to suffer. But don’t die in it. Die in faith and communion with the Catholic Church.’
It was in this period, the calm before the storm, that Nicholas Owen came to manhood.” (1)
Nicholas Owen was born at Oxford, early in the reign of Elizabeth, to Walter, a carpenter, in or around 1562. He had three brothers, John, Walter and Henry. All the brothers were to spend their lives, and in Nicholas’ case give his life, supporting their Church. The brothers also had a younger sister, Elizabeth. (2)
Nicholas trained as a joiner, and achieved an extremely high mastery of carpentry. His skills, his intelligence and courtesy, his humble personality and gentle disposition were to enable him to serve the Church by assisting the priests in negotiations and logistical arrangements and, most significantly, to construct priest-holes by which the lives of those priests were saved. Contemporaneous comment was provided by the author of the Narrative, a memoir composed by a Jesuit author and to which comments were added by Father John Gerard:
“But the man that was most extremely used and with extremities brought unto the last extremity which is death itself, was one Nicholas Owen, commonly called and most known by the sake of Little John. By which name he was so famous and so much esteemed by all Catholics, especially those of the better sort, that few in England, either priests or others, were of more credit. This man did, for seventeen or eighteen years, continually attend upon Father Garnett, and assist him on many occasions. But his chief employment was in the making of secret places to hide priests and Church stuff from the fury of searches; in which kind he was so skilful both to devise and frame the places, that I verily think no man can be said to have done more good of all those that laboured in the English vineyard. For first, he was the immediate occasion of saving the lives of many hundreds of persons, both ecclesial and secular, and of the estates also of these seculars which would have been lost and forfeited many times over if the priests had been taken in their houses; of which some have escaped not once but many times, in several searches that have come to the same house and sometimes five or six priests together at the same time. Myself have been one of the seven that have escaped the danger at one time in a secret place of his making.” (3)
We are told that he always took communion the day he started work and that ‘as much labour would give him leave, did continually pray whilst working’ (4)
'But the contriving of his works were also assisted by an extraordinary wit and discretion which he had in such measure as I have seldom in my life seen the like in a man of his quality, which is also the opinion of most that did know him well'. (5)
The area of his childhood, Oxfordshire, refused to accept the imposed Anglican religion. Oxford University had been compared unfavourably with the more compliant Cambridge University by Henry VIII. There had been a serious uprising in the county by rebels who were specifically demanding a return to the old Latin services and Mass. This had been quickly and ruthlessly suppressed with the ringleaders executed. Among them was the vicar of Chipping Norton, who was sentenced to hang in chains from his church steeple. (6)
Despite this ferocious subjugation, the suppression of the Catholicism of the locals was ineffectual, according to the Mayor of Oxford, who informed the Privy Council in 1561 that ‘There were not three houses in [Oxford] that were not filled with Papists.’ (7)
The Owen family were recusants, (the name for those who refused to accept the Protestant faith), but, because of resistance in the Oxfordshire area, they were able to subsist within a community of recalcitrant Catholics.
“We do not often hear of recusants…that were of modest means. The fines and social pressures were much harder to resist if one did not have influence, money and servants. The fact that the Owen family were able to survive indicates they had friends or sympathisers as neighbours and as officials of their local parish, St Peter le Bailey. Fines were collected at a local level by the churchwardens of non-attendants at services. The fact that they were not beggared suggests that their names were not recorded.”(7A)
In 1581, Edmund Campion, who had been tortured for four months, was executed by being hanged, drawn and quartered. Nicholas Owen had served as Father Campion’s servant and was arrested for protesting his innocence.
“In the year of [Father Campion’s] execution, 'The Act to Retain the Queen’s Majesty’s Subjects in their Obedience' was passed.” This made it high treason to convert to Catholicism – called in the Act the ‘Romish religion’ – or to convert another person to the faith. It also imposed a fine of 100 marks and a year’s imprisonment on anyone attending Mass. A mark was 160 pence or 13s 4d so 100 marks was over 66 pounds – an impossible sum.” (9)
It had been for many years, forbidden for Catholics to obtain an education or to send their children away to obtain an education. The universities were barred to them, ironic, as all the major universities had been started as ecclesiastical Catholic institutions. For these reasons, academics from the universities moved to the continent and started the seminaries and colleges for the English at Rheims and Louvain. It was from these colleges, initially started as a means of educating young Catholics, that the mission changed to one of administering, the Jesuit priests subsequently embarking upon the mission of administrating to the English Catholics in their faith.
Then, in 1585 Parliament passed an Act against "Jesuits, Seminary Priests and Other Such Like Disobedient Persons". This made it high treason for any seminary priest to be in England at all and for anyone to shelter them. It was under this law that many priests and lay people who sheltered them were to die, their property forfeited to the Crown. (10)
Entering the country itself was a dangerous undertaking –spies, answerable to Sir Francis Walsingham, the Queen’s spymaster, who operated a network of spies reporting on those who were acting in the interests of the Catholic faith, were established on the continent, at the entry ports and in the churches to report on those not taking communion. Indeed, Christopher Marlowe has been said to have been one such spy. Once the priests gained entry to the country and established themselves in a house and with a body of Catholic faithful, there was a problem of hiding them in the event of a raid; the priest was under a certain sentence of death, as were any of those involved in hiding him, together with the forfeiture of their property to the Crown. A lucrative reward was given to those who reported on the comings and goings of their neighbours.
Prior to the involvement of Nicholas Owen, the construction of priest-holes in country houses were few and most were badly built. Edmund Campion had been discovered because his hide had been so badly constructed that daylight could be seen between the cracks. (11)
Father Henry Garnet was a priest in the Society of Jesus. He was sent to England as the Provincial of the Jesuit mission to minister to the Catholic population and to supervise and organise the mission, landing at Folkstone with his friend and companion, the priest poet, (and Shakespeare’s cousin), Father Robert Southwell. Nicholas Owen was assigned as Father Garnet's servant.
In the early months of the mission, Father Garnet took a house to the north of London, at Finsbury Fields. He decided to give the impression that the house was unoccupied for security reasons. In that way he would evade the attention of officials who would regularly check all premises to ensure that the occupants were attending the obligatory Anglican service. (12) He gave orders that those living there were not to speak in ‘a natural voice for fear of being over heard in the road hard by. Nor was it permissible in the daytime to prepare food or to light a fire even in the most bitter winter weather for fear the smoke might be seen. All food was cooked by night and eaten cold the next day.’
‘Visitors were not to come in daylight. Nicholas, as his servant, was responsible for cooking the meals at night and serving them the next day, washing and somehow drying clothes, running errands, taking messages and performing all the menial tasks required. When Father Garnet was on the road, which… was very frequent, Nicholas would have the extra tasks of loading the horses and unpacking the goods at the end of the journey. It is also very likely that he assisted with the printing press that Robert Southwell was running at another location. ‘(13)
It was in this house that Nicholas Owen built what was probably his first priest-hole. It was in the cellar behind an untidy store of beer barrels, fuel and provisions and could accommodate six or seven men. (14)
In 1589 Father Garnet accompanied Father Edward Oldcorne to Hindlip House in Worcestershire, the home of Thomas Habington, and left him there to build up a religious centre for the west of England. Hindlip became famous for its innumerable priest holes, constructed by Nicholas, so that Father Oldcorne would have a place of concealment in the event of a raid. Father Oldcorne was to stay at Hindlip for the next seventeen years. (15)
Father Garnet and Nicholas Owen then went to the Midlands and stayed at the home of a wealthy recusant family, a manor house in the village of Shoby, Leicestershire, which was occupied by two ladies, the Vaux sisters – Eleanor Brooksby and her unmarried sister, Anne Vaux. They were the daughters of Lord William Vaux who had been imprisoned and heavily fined for harbouring Edmund Campion.
Nicholas Owen and Father Garnet travelled constantly from house to house to evade their pursuers, (the Poursuivants”), and always the Vaux family would buy, rent or build premises where they could find shelter, usually living in the premises themselves to provide cover.
Father John Gerard, who authored his memoirs in “Autobiography of a Hunted Priest” (16) said, of Nicholas Owen, that “this man did for seventeen or eighteen years continually attend upon Father Garnet.” (17) He built priest-holes throughout the recusant areas; each one of necessity vastly different from the other, and all notable for their ingenuity and workmanship. Hides were built in manor houses such as Baddesley Clinton, in Warwickshire, and Braddocks in East Anglia.
The priest-holes constructed by Nicholas survived searches which lasted from 4 to 9 days, sometimes weeks, in which wainscoting was taken up, walls pulled down, detection sought throughout for hidden chambers by tapping and listening for hollow sounds and such like. These hides saved the lives of the priests as well as many hundreds of those Catholics concealing them.
A major setback occurred in June of 1592 when Robert Southwell, long Father Garnet’s companion and second-in–command, was arrested. So important was the capture of this veteran priest that the Queen’s Secretary Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, took part in his interrogation. Father Southwell was considered worthy to rate the attention of the top torturer Richard Topcliffe. To Father Gerard, Topcliffe was ’the cruellest tyrant of all England.. a man most infamous and hateful to all the realm for his bloody and butcherly mind’ and ‘an old man, grown grey in wickedness’. Father Garnet adds that ‘he boasts that he gets more pleasure from hunting down priests than he ever got from chasing wild animals or setting snares for birds.’ And that ‘he had erected, as became him, instruments for every type of torture, so that he should lack no convenience for wreaking vengeance on Catholics.’
He had actually got permission to build and use a rack in his own home near St Margaret’s churchyard, in Westminster. (18)
The inquisitors were aware that Father Southwell was second only to the Superior in the Jesuit hierarchy and were determined to extract everything they could. Unfortunately for them and despite Topcliffe’s best efforts, they could not get Southwell to utter a word. In later years, Cecil described the inquisition to a friend:
“They boast about the heroes of antiquity, but we have a new torture which it is not possible for a man to bear. And yet I have seen Robert Southwell hanging by it, still as a tree trunk and none able to drag one word from his mouth.”(19)
Father Garnet, Nicholas Owen’s master, sank into a deep despair; Father Southwell had been executed in February 1595; Father John Gerard, fellow Jesuit, was imprisoned in the Tower and facing an almost certain death sentence; other Jesuits had also been arrested and every Catholic prisoner who had been arrested was being tortured for more information.
Father Garnet and Nicholas Owen then stayed at Hindlip House – a large rambling structure with a fine view over the surrounding countryside. The house of those times was burnt down and completely rebuilt. However a description of the house of Nicholas Owen’s time from a book for Regency travellers provides:
‘There is scarcely an apartment that has not secret ways of coming in or going out: some have back staircases concealed in the walls; others have places of retreat in their chimneys; some have trap doors; and present a picture of gloom, insecurity and suspicion.’
It was then that one of the peripheral figures in the Gunpowder Plot betrayed Father Oldcorne in return for his life. He told them that Father Oldcorne was at Hindlip House and that Father Garnet was there too. This betrayal of his friends did not advantage him as they hanged him anyway.
The Narrative describes the search of Hindlip House:
‘He came therefore to the house on a Sunday morning very early accompanied with above a hundred men, armed with guns and all kinds of weapons more fit for an army than an orderly search. And beginning to beat at the gate with great importunity to be let in the Catholics within the house soon perceiving their intentions, made all the haste possible to hide the priests and the Church stuff…and all such persons and things as belonged to the priests as might give cause of suspicion.’
'Owen and Father Oldcorne’s servant, Ralph Ashley, were hurried into one priest-hole and Father Garnet and Father Oldcorne into another. Owen and Ashley had only 1 apple between them. Father Garnet and Oldcorne were in a better case because Owen had installed a narrow tube from an adjoining bedroom into the hide. Down this tube water and thin broth could be transferred to the occupants with minimal danger of detection.' (20)
Tesimond’s account praised the security of Hindlip, saying:
'That house was among the safest that existed, not merely in the county but in the whole of England. It was a fine large house and for that reason well-suited to concealing secret places…the occupants had had good experience of this in many searches. Not once in all of them had they ever been able to find a priest, although it was taken as almost certain that they were there all the time.'(21)
However, on this occasion, Owen and Ashley were taken. The Narrative describes:
'They watched their time when the searchers were furthest off and came out so secretly and stilly and shut the place again so finely that they were not one whit heard or perceived when or where they came out. But the searchers being turned back in their walk and perceiving two strange men there whom they had not seen before …asked what they were…The others asked if they were priests: they answered they were Catholics and that further they would not answer, being no doubt being taken for such, the better to satisfy the insatiable mind of those blood-suckers. Then being asked where they had been all the while, they answered they had hid themselves, being Catholics, to avoid taking. And being urged to tell or show the place, they absolutely refused.' (22)
It is clear that Owen and Ashley were allowing the pursuivants to believe they were priests, which omission of the truth was believed by Sir Henry Bromley, the officer in charge, according to the report he subsequently sent to Robert Cecil. Indeed, according to the author of the Narrative, the reason for the two men coming out of their hide was to deflect the attention of the searchers from the priests:
“They perceived the resolution of the searchers to be of staying in the house until they had either found or famished those whom they knew to be within. Therefore these two virtuous men being in hope that upon their taking, the searchers would be satisfied and depart…this hope made them resolve to offer themselves to their enemies’ hands, to save the lives of those whom they loved better than themselves.’(23)
However, to no avail; On the eighth day of the search, Father Garnet and Father Oldcorne were found in a priest hole built into the chimney. Father Garnet was taken to the gatehouse at Westminster which was used for State prisoners because of its convenience for the Privy Council. Nicholas Owen was initially taken to a gaol often used for recusants, the Marshalsea on the south bank of the Thames. Then both Nicholas Owen and Father Garnet were transferred to the Tower. (24)
"Many rotted in that place for years. This inscription can still be seen in the Beauchamp Tower : Quanto plus afflictionis pro Christo in hoc saeculo, tanto plus gloriae cum Christo in future. Arundell – 22 June 1587- ‘The more affliction we endure for Christ in this world, the more glory we shall get with Christ in the world to come.” It was carved by the Earl of Arundel who spent the rest of his life in the Beauchamp Tower. As he lay dying, he petitioned Queen Elizabeth that he might see his wife and son one last time. Elizabeth replied: ‘If he but once would go to the [Protestant] church, his request should not only be granted, but he should be restored to his honour and his estates with as much favour as she could show.’ To this, the Earl responded that ‘He could not accept Her Majesty’s offer upon that condition and he was sorry he had but one life to lose in such a cause.” (25)
On 22nd February the Privy Council wrote to the Lieutenant, Sir William Wade, giving him general power to ‘put inferior prisoners on the rack.’ The Courts of common law or Equity had no power to order torture but the monarch retained the power to do so (through the prerogative powers) and did so by Royal warrant, as did the Privy Council through its judicial arm, the Court of Star Chamber.
Quite early on Nicholas Owen gave a ‘confession’ in which he denied knowing anything or anyone, with the exception of Ralph Ashley who had been caught with him, whom he called ‘George Chambers’ (his alias).
A report sent to the Privy Council dated February 26 1606 says:
‘He confesseth that he hath been called by the name Andrews and knoweth not whether he hath been called by the names of Little John…
That he came to Mr Abington’s house the Saturday before he was taken but he refuseth to answer from which place he came.
He denieth that he knoweth Father Garnett or that he ever served hinm..
He denieth that he knoweth a Jesuit called Oldcorne or Hall…(26)
The interrogators continued the torture every day for the next three days. Owen was hung in the manacles daily and for hours at a time.
Father Tesimond’s Italian version of the narrative provides;
'They tormented him with hideous cruelty. Every day, news arrived of freshly devised tortures which he had to suffer, and this went on for many days continually; but the truth is, we do not know the details even to this day. All we know is that sometimes for several hours on end he was subjected to torture. The only sound to be heard from him was one which had long been familiar with him at all hours and times, ‘Sweet Jesus!’ and ‘Lord, give me your holy grace and patience!’(27)
The rack-master had a practical problem because the torture caused Nicholas’ hernia to gape and his intestines to bulge out through his abdominal wall. Sustaining a rupture on the manacle or rack was a common occurrence. The solution was to tie a circular metal plate over the hernia as a sort of truss.
He was put to the torture again and died in the most agonising manner. The stretching of his body forced his hernia out past the metal plate and the edge of the plate gashed his intestines so severely that he perished. The Narrative describes it:
'He therefore, being not only tortured, but that with so much extremity and so long continuance, it could not be otherwise that his bowels should come out; which, when they perceived, and minding as yet to continue that course with him, they girded his belly with a plate of iron to keep in his bowels, but the extremity of pain, (which is most, in that kind of torment, about the breast and the belly) did force out his guts and so the iron did serve to cut and wound his body, which perhaps, did afterwards put them in mind to give it out that he had ripped his belly with a knife.”(28)
Knives were, naturally, not allowed or, if ever given, were, of course, accompanied and watched. However, a formal inquest was held and a verdict of suicide was returned. One of the King’s chaplains, Dr Robert Abbott, wrote the official account of his death, including the unlikely detail that his keeper treated had Owen with every kindness. To reinforce the story, the authorities had an illustrated ballad published as an effective propaganda tool with Nicholas Owen ripping out his own bowels with a knife as he lay in bed.
We have a record of Star Chamber proceedings against two Catholics who were uttering ‘treasonable speech concerning the death of Owen’, the indictment including the following allegation:
‘That the said Edward Prater, being on the fourth day of March last past at dinner in the company of divers gents and others at the lodgings of Sir Hugh Pollard, knight, in your Majesty’s house called St John’s near unto Clerkenwell…and hearing the said Sir Hugh Pollard then say that a prisoner in the Tower (meaning the said Henry Owen) had killed himself, he the said Edward Prater…did then and there most falsely answer that he heard that the said prisoner….was tortured to death. Whereupon, reply being made by the Lady Pollard that he killed himself, for as she said, it was generally reported everywhere, he the said Edward Prater did then and there offer to lay a wager with her that the same prisoner was tortured to death.’ (29)
A despatch from the Venetian Ambassador to his government, which mentions the official account (related to him by the King), with an addition, written in cipher as follows:
‘Public opinion, however, holds that he died of the tortures inflicted upon him, which were so severe that they deprived him, not only of his strength, but of the power to move any part of his body, and so they think it unlikely that he should have been able to stab himself in the body, especially with a blunt knife, as they allege. It is thought that as he confessed nothing and is dead, they have hoodwinked the King himself by publishing this account in order to arouse him and everyone to greater animosity against the Catholics and to make the case blacker against his companion the Provincial.’ Dated March 23rd 1606. (30)
Father Garnet was put on trial for high treason and sentenced to be hanged drawn and quartered. Two months after Nicholas Owen had died, Father Garnet was drawn on a hurdle to St Paul’s churchyard. His execution drew an immense crowd. The ordinary person had been taught that Jesuits were dangerous, evil, devious, traitorous and their superior was a veritable Prince of Darkness. The crowd, however became sympathetic to him and begged the hangman not to cut him down until he was thoroughly dead.
After his execution, in a gruesome reflection of the barbarity of those behind the regime, Father Garnet’s skin was flayed and used to bind one of the copies of a book detailing the speeches and evidence at his trial, entitled: "A True and Perfect Relation of the Whole Proceedings against the Late Most Barbarous Traitors, Garnet, A Jesuit and His Confederates". A copy of the book was auctioned in 2007. (31)
The persecution lasted from Henry VIII in 1535 until 1679, when James II ascended to the throne. James was the brother of Charles II but was unpopular as he had converted to Catholicism. On his access to the throne, Parliament passed statutes alleviating penalties for Catholics not attending Anglican worship. Despite this, a wide range of Penal laws placed significant discrimination and social restrictions on Catholics until well into the 19th and 20th century, with Catholics not being able to attend university, practice law or medicine, be officers in the Army or Navy or hold any public office, including being a member of parliament.(32)
The Catholic Church sought to give recognition to the Reformation martyrs but was initially unable to because the old diocesan structure had been abolished under Elizabeth with the death of the last Marian bishop in 1585. In 1643 Urban VII, at the request of the English Benedictines in exile, appointed a commission of English priests to prepare a submission on the sanctity of the martyrs under the direction of an archbishop in France. However, the English authorities got word of this and frustrated all attempts to collect evidence. So matters rested for 200 years. In the late 18th century there were only 80,000 Catholics in England (1% of the population). With the gradual easing of restrictions, numbers grew through immigration, especially with Irish Catholics and in 1850, Pope Pius IX issued the Bull Universalis Ecclesiae (The Universal Church) recreating the diocesan hierarchy and appointing bishops to their sees. (33)
Although allowing the return of the Catholic churches in the 1850's, the Parliament disallowed any Catholic diocese to take the name of the former Catholic diocese which had been appropriated to the Anglican Church or to use their former churches. The Catholic bishops in England were compelled to construct new churches, while the Anglican church retained possession of those Catholic churches taken during the reign of Henry VIII. There was a great deal of alarm in the Parliamentary debates at the thought of the Catholic Church reclaiming any of the property that had been appropriated.
In May 1970, Pope Paul VI declared Nicholas Owen and his companions to be enrolled among the saints, this declaration taking place in a ceremony, where during Holy Communion, while the Crimond setting of “the Lord is my Shepherd” was sung, a number of people received the host from Pope Paul himself, including descendants of the martyrs. (34)
Father Henry Garnet, the Jesuit Superior who had also died for his faith, did not receive the formal recognition of sainthood. The basic requirement for beatification and canonisation is ‘heroic virtue’: That is, constant performance of virtuous actions, but importantly, for them to have been done joyfully and without thought for worldly consequences. It is clear from his writings that this cannot be said of Father Garnet, as he constantly referred to the death that awaited him on capture. As early as 1586 his reputation for fortitude was so low that the students at Douai mocked him as ‘a little wretch of a man, who day and night thinks of nothing save the rack and the gibbet’- (with reason perhaps?) For this reason, although Father Garnet had worked constantly for the Church, nevertheless, it was not enough for the highest honours. (35) His servant, Nicholas Owen, however, did receive the highest honours of the Church for his heroic virtue, humility and dedication in his vocation of serving the Jesuit mission on behalf of Holy Mother Church.
In a passage of the Narrative which is described by Mr Reynolds as ‘a remarkable thing for a Jesuit to say of a layman’, the author, Father Gerard, says:
“In the meantime I desire my soul may have part with his and myself may be assisted with his holy prayers.”
In other words, the writer hopes for Owen’s prayers from heaven. (36)
Examples of Owens’ work survive at Sawston Hall, near Cambridge, Huddington Hall in Worcestershire and Coughton Hall in Warwickshire.
(1) Tony Reynolds, "St Nicholas Owen", Ignatius Press, (2014), at p. 13.
(2) Ibid., at p. 15.
(3) Ibid., at pp. 182-183.
(4) Ibid.m at p. 183.
(5) Ibid., at p. 184.
(6) Ibid., at p. 15.
(7) Ibid., at p. 16.
(7A) Ibid.
(9) Ibid., at p. 25.
(10) Ibid.
(11) Ibid., at p. 35.
(12) Ibid., at p. 38.
(13) Ibid., at p. 39.
(14) Ibid.
(15) Ibid., at p. 40.
(16) John Gerard SJ, "Autobiography of a Hunted Priest" Ignatius Press, (1952).
(17) Tony Reynolds, opcit., at p. 29.
(18) Ibid., at p. 58.
(19) Ibid.,
(20) Ibid., at p. 93.
(21) Ibid., at p. 95.
(22) Ibid., at pp. 95-96.
(23) Ibid., at p. 97.
(24) Ibid., at p. 125.
(25) Ibid.
(26) Ibid.
(27) Ibid., at p. 129.
(28) Ibid., at pp. 188-189.
(29) Ibid.
(30) Ibid., at p. 133.
(31) Ibid.
(32) Ibid.
(33) Ibid.
(34) Ibid., at p. 144.
(35) Ibid., at p. 145.
(36) Ibid., at p. 146.
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